Positivism as an Epistemological System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Positivism as an Epistemological System - Essay Example Thus, there can be no room for any mystical abstractions in explaining phenomena. In the second wave of positivist thought, a second form of positivism, i.e. logical positivism took place, and â€Å"took advantage of the further progress made in the hard sciences to insist on purging all metaphysics from the scientific method† (Jordan, 2004, p.28). â€Å"Logical positivist views about science and knowledge were based on a general theory of language. †¦This theory of language featured two main ideas, the analytic-synthetic distinction and the verifiability theory of meaning† (Godfrey-Smith, 2003, p.25). I will discuss these ideas in detail in the next section. The third wave of positivism is generally attributed to a group called the Vienna Circle. â€Å"The Vienna Circle was established by Moritz Schlick and Otto Neurath. †¦But from the early days through the end, a central intellectual figure here was Rudolf Carnap† (Godfrey-Smith, 2003, p.22). In this stage, positivism was carried in its logical form. However, some positivists prefer to regard this latter period as logical or scientific empiricism (Greetham, 2006, p.121), to distinguish it from the previous logical positivist movement. In this essay, I shall use the term logical positivism to refer to the whole of 20th century positivism, to distinguish it from Comte’s 19th century positivism. Positivism as Epistemology From a general perspective, positivism is considered to be an epistemological system through its advocacy of attaining empirical knowledge through sense perception, and its adherence to the scientific method i.e. induction. However when logical positivism stepped into the picture, it was made clear that â€Å"logical positivism had other roots... The first part of the paper consists of an historical analysis of 19th century positivism, logical positivism, up until the period of the Vienna Circle. The second part covers the epistemological implications of positivism. Here,the main tenets of logical positivism and its adherence to epistemology are discussed. A main figure that it will be discussed here is Karl Popper. Finally, this paper is concluded by discussing the fall of positivism. The paper stresses that progress and development in knowledge is an endless endeavor. Since the birth of positivism up until its downfall, positivism nevertheless shaped the manner by which we do science. The authod talks that one is the breakdown of the view of language that formed the basis of many logical positivist and logical empiricist ideas. Another is pressure from holistic arguments. A third is the frustrating history of attempts to develop an inductive logic. A fourth is the development of a new role for fields like history and psychology in the philosophy of science. The report makes a conclusion that positivism succeeded in developing a systematic method of approaching reality. And scientific knowledge was the very basis for reconstructing reality, with scientific laws as central in research. If epistemology is the study of knowledge, then positivism is a valid epistemological system. For if there is one thing that positivism established, it is no other than a coherent reconstruction of human knowledge based on the methods and principles of science itself. It is in this regard that positivism, despite its fall, proved to be influential throughout history.

Globalisation and the Nation State

Globalisation and the Nation State Globalisation And The Changing Role Of The Nation-State Will the nation-state geo-political structure survive the onslaught of the juggernaut of globalisation? Most scholarly articles take the ‘to be or not to be’ approach in addressing this question. Occasionally, some authors also take the more subtle and diplomatic approach of ‘whatever will be, will be’. However, in this essay I distance myself from popular literature in that I take a subjective yet historically sound position. The stand taken in this essay neither pleases the die-hard nation-state proponents, nor does it echo the predictions of the globalization-will-lead-to-one-nation theorists. Rather, I simply put forward historical evidence to draw our attention to two key trends: the evolution of the nation-state, and the progress/process of globalisation since antiquity. And, in the light of these historical trends I propose that the process of globalisation neither marks the end of the nation-state, nor does it strengthen its position as a constructin g unit in world geo-politics. On the contrary, current trends of globalisation clearly mark the transformation of the role of the nation-state in international relations, which can be clearly seen in the gradual shifting of sovereignty from nation-states to mega-corporate states/entities like the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Trade Organisation (WTO), and the World Bank. The Rise Of The Nation-State The basis of the current nation-state model of world organisation lies in the Westphalian principle of sovereignty (Croxton, 1999). However, the concept of sovereignty as the aforementioned article claims is itself not a creation of the Westphalian model. Rather, the question of sovereignty is as old as the first war ever found between human forces. Nevertheless, to put things into perspective, the evolution of governance and sovereignty can be traced in a sequential pattern starting with tribal governance and city-states leading ultimately to nation-states (Brinkman Brinkman, 2008). In fact, as Brinkman (2008) puts it, â€Å"Over time the locus of sovereignty evolved along with the evolution of governance in the form of city-states, nation-states, and on to nationalism.† In other words, as people began living together in growing numbers they organised themselves into small nomadic tribes whose sovereign was often the tribal leader, or the family patriarch or matriarch (whichever may be the case). Over time, these tribes settled into towns and cities. With increasing population, the sovereign authority gradually shifted from the head of the tribal family onto a ruling family, i.e. a system of monarchy. Unlike tribal leaders who were chosen from among the clan, the rulers were born into the royal family. This system was necessary to avoid bloody clashes and in-fighting among the populace. However, as time went by and knowledge became widespread, the time was ripe for the birth of the nation-state. The genesis of nationalism took place when the transference of loyalty of a given nationality became directed toward â€Å"we the people, via the formation of a republican form of government (Brinkman Brinkman, 2008). The people who had given up their indiv idual sovereignty, first to the head of the family, and later to the rulers, decided to take it back in the form of democracy where the sovereignty rested with â€Å"we the people†. The collective identity of â€Å"we the people† manifested in the form of the nation-state. This brings us to the present times. The world is rapidly changing in many ways: technically, socially, culturally, intellectually, and so on. However, when we look at geo-political organisation of the world we can observe a trend towards a larger governing body that transcends the conventional limits of the nation-state units. The world is increasingly being controlled by mega-corporate entities like the IMF, WTO, and the World Bank. Nation-states are, either willingly or by compulsion, compromising their sovereignty in order to survive the onslaught of globalisation. So, does that mean that the nation-states are nearing their shelf-life? Did the individual-self completely and permanently sacrifice itself when humankind first decided to appoint tribal leaders? Likewise, did the ruling class become an extinct breed with the dawn of democracy and the birth of the nation-state? The answer is an emphatic no. Rather, these constructing units took on different roles in the organisation of the society as the locus of sovereignty shifted and new constructing units were formed to accommodate the growing populations and rise of civilizations. So, what does this mean for the future of the nation-state? In the last century we have seen the birth of a new political unit that transcends geographical limits: the mega-corporate state. However, for the new order to exist the old one must give up that which in the first place called it into existence: sovereignty. The sovereignty of the nation-state is in conflict with that of the megacorporate state (Brinkman Brinkman, 2008), but we can already see signs of transference of this sovereignty from the former to the latter. Once the process has been completed, the world might function with completely new dynamics, with the nation-states playing a key role in the new world-political mechanism. In other words, the nation-state would undergo a transformation in that its role in world politics would change in order to facilitate the rise of the megacorporate state. The Progress/Process Of Globalisation Having drawn our attention to the rise of the nation-state and its changing role in present times, let us now look at the cause behind the change. Globalisation, as many believe, is not a phenomena nor is it a product/consequence of the industrial revolution, technological advancements, or the enlightenment of humankind in the last couple of centuries. Rather it is a human-initiated process that began in antiquity when our species first began to spread across the face of the planet earth. Globalisation is a journey (Wolf, 2001) that began as long ago as when the first traders/merchants began setting out on adventurous journeys in search of fortunes in unchartered foreign lands, and even further back to when flourishing civilizations began forming ancient world empires. However, in order to put things into perspective and to keep the essay short and to avoid the risk of digressing, let us look at the process of globalisation in the context of the last couple of centuries. Globalisation as a process has always been at work in the march of human civilizations, however it has only been observable in recent times due to various developments that are intrinsically linked to innovation and technology. As Martin (2001) puts it, over the past five centuries technological advancements have progressively reduced the barriers to international integration. Rapid and affordable means of transportation as well as widespread communication networks offering real-time access to information have significantly and undeniably accelerated the pace of globalisation, especially over the past century. However, the globalising trends of increased trade, huge investments in foreign markets, as well as rise in immigration rates are not unprecedented. Martin (2001) compares statistics from pre-World War I period as well as from the late 1800s to that of current times to show that all these trends were almost at the same levels are they are today. Yet, there is something substant ially different going on today than a couple of centuries ago. The accelerated pace of globalisation has created the need for the birth of megacorporate entities. This is particularly true since the 1970s when nation-states around the globe began adopting liberal economic policies, and started opening up their markets to international trade and investment. The rapidly integrating world has exposed the inadequacies of the nation-state model in that the sovereignty of the nation-state is in direct conflict with the progress of the human society. This realization has initiated world leaders to afford policy changes that mark the shift of sovereignty to entities that transcend geo-political boundaries. So, is the nation-state dying? An emphatic no again. On the contrary, nation-states are evolving into more efficient geo-political units that have a greater role to play in international relations. However, the cost of international integration and progress must come at the expense of national sovereignty. The rise of the megacorporate state can be seen in the active role that its precursors like the IMF, WTO, and the World Bank play in international politics. In order to govern a world that is increasingly becoming inter-linked and inter-dependent it essential that sovereignty be shifted to a governing body that isn’t bound by geo-political boundaries. However, nationalism has taken deep roots in the peoples of all nations, and hence it would not be without much blood shed and war that nation-states can be destroyed to form a one-world order. Fortunately, there is an alternative to war: the megacorporate state that delegates with nation-states on not completely but only certain aspects – the sharing of sovereign much like that in current day federal states. In other words, the world is moving to organising itself into a world federation of nation-states. Another question arises here. Is globalisation destroying the capacity of governments to form national policies? Quite the contrary. As Martin points out, â€Å"Globalisation can progress only as far as national policy makers will allow.† He goes on to argue the proposition that globalisation will make the nation-states unnecessary is even less credible than the idea that it makes them impotent. Martin puts forward three defences for his arguments. First, the ability of a society to take advantage of the opportunities offered by international economic integration depends on the quality of public goods, such as property rights, an honest civil service, personal security, and basic education. Removing the nation-state from the equation would necessitate the redundancy of creating an equivalent unit to fill in the vacuum left by the nation-state in the first place. Second, the nation-state offers the members of a society a sense of identity and a sense of belonging. While not ent irely impossible, finding a global-identity that is agreeable to all peoples would again be a redundant process. Rather, it is more logical and natural to develop parallel identities of belonging to a nation that is itself a part of the world. Third, international governance depends on the ability of nation-states to provide and guarantee stability. As Martin puts it, â€Å"The bedrock of international order is the territorial state with its monopoly on coercive power within its jurisdiction.† In simple words, the nation-state has a slightly different yet vital role to play in international governance. As Martin (2001) rightly argues, technology while pointing towards greater international integration, was in and by itself not responsible for the changing dynamics of world politics and geo-political organisation. â€Å"Policy, not technology, has determined the extent and pace of international economic integration.†(Wolf, 2001). Conclusion Globalisation is not necessarily an evil like some of us perceive it to be. On the contrary, it is a necessary process for the progress of human civilizations. While some of us believe that globalisation marks the end of the nation-state, I strongly believe that the nation-state will continue to play a vital role in world organisation and politics, albeit in a different role than that of a sovereign power. Nation-states are and will continue to be vital for people to be able to successfully benefit from the opportunities afforded by international integration (Wolf, 2001). I further agree with Martin (2001) in that global governance will come not at the expense of the nation-state but rather as an expression of the interests that the state embodies. I also agree that globalization is a choice and not a matter of destiny. â€Å"It is a choice made to enhance a nation’s economic well-being.† (Wolf, 2001) References Brinkman, R. L., Brinkman, J. E. (2008). Globalization and the nation-state: Dead or alive. Journal of Economic Issues, 42(2), 425-433. Croxton, D. (1999). The peace of westphalia of 1648 and the origins of sovereignty. The International History Review, 21(3), 569-591. Wolf, M. (2001). Will the nation-state survive globalization? Foreign Affairs, 80(1), 178-190. doi:http://www.foreignaffairs.com/archive

Free Candide Essays: Politically Incorrect :: Candide essays

The Politically Incorrect Candide    Candide is a story that should be added to every canon in literature. It is a story that addresses issues about human nature that other stories choose to ignore.   It addresses issues such as human nature, optimism, and religion and state.   These elements give an insight and a perspective that readers do not usually get in every day literature.   These elements are controversial, but from an honest point of view.   Voltaire never tries to be politically correct – he tells it like it is or at least tells it like he sees things.   Not only does Voltaire address the ignorance of mankind, but also he directly challenges the integrity of the church and state.   This, in Voltaire's day and often times in modern days, can prove to be quite dangerous. Through all of this, Voltaire sternly opposes many issues of religion and state.   Because of these dangerous issues, Voltaire was forced to deny his writing of Candide.   By Voltaire's death in 1778, Candide had climbed to fifty editions and became the best seller of the eighteenth century. (pg.11 Weitz)         Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Because of the conflict prevalent in the story of Candide, it makes this story a good topic for discussion in a classroom setting.   There is much debating that can be done over many topics.   The range of offensive topics in Candide is sure to strike a nerve in every one in some way, shape or form.   Or, at least bring up issues valuable enough for discussion. Candide is a story the students, in some parts can relate to, and possibly in other parts be offended by.   It is a novel that by all means should be read by every one to experience a perspective that is none too often revealed in literature especially in the day that Voltaire wrote Candide. Free Candide Essays: Politically Incorrect :: Candide essays The Politically Incorrect Candide    Candide is a story that should be added to every canon in literature. It is a story that addresses issues about human nature that other stories choose to ignore.   It addresses issues such as human nature, optimism, and religion and state.   These elements give an insight and a perspective that readers do not usually get in every day literature.   These elements are controversial, but from an honest point of view.   Voltaire never tries to be politically correct – he tells it like it is or at least tells it like he sees things.   Not only does Voltaire address the ignorance of mankind, but also he directly challenges the integrity of the church and state.   This, in Voltaire's day and often times in modern days, can prove to be quite dangerous. Through all of this, Voltaire sternly opposes many issues of religion and state.   Because of these dangerous issues, Voltaire was forced to deny his writing of Candide.   By Voltaire's death in 1778, Candide had climbed to fifty editions and became the best seller of the eighteenth century. (pg.11 Weitz)         Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Because of the conflict prevalent in the story of Candide, it makes this story a good topic for discussion in a classroom setting.   There is much debating that can be done over many topics.   The range of offensive topics in Candide is sure to strike a nerve in every one in some way, shape or form.   Or, at least bring up issues valuable enough for discussion. Candide is a story the students, in some parts can relate to, and possibly in other parts be offended by.   It is a novel that by all means should be read by every one to experience a perspective that is none too often revealed in literature especially in the day that Voltaire wrote Candide.

Do You Exist Because You Think, or Do You Think Because You Exist, or Neither? Essay

In order to consider â€Å"I exist because I think† or †I think because I exist†, I would define the â€Å"I exist because I think† as â€Å"I think† is the cause of â€Å"I exist†. This implies â€Å"I think† appear before â€Å"I exist† and cause â€Å"I exist† to happen. In the other side, â€Å"I think because I exist† would be â€Å"I exist† is the cause of â€Å"I think†. This implies â€Å"I exist† appear before â€Å"I think† and cause â€Å"I think† to happen. In terms of logic, I would say â€Å"I think because I exist â€Å" is more appropriate. It is because I must exist first, therefore I can think of my existence. Things about me or myself are impossible to happen before my existence and cause my existence. In the following paper, I would like to explain why â€Å"I exist because I think† is false and explain â€Å"I think because I exist† is true. Let me first explain why ‘I exist because I think’ is false. If ‘I exist because I think’ is true, every time when I think I exist and when I do not think, I do not exist. As I mentioned, â€Å"Think† seems to be the cause of my existence in this case. How can my thinking exist before my existence and cause my existence. Therefore, I must exist first, then I can think about â€Å"I exist† or not. In fact, every minute whatever I am conscious or not, I am existing in this world, If my body physically is existing. For example, a person whose body functionally works but loss his conscious. He is still alive but he cannot think, we cannot say he is inexistent, because he is not dead. In other word, I can exist without â€Å"I think†, but â€Å"I think† cannot be without I exist. Furthermore, as Descartes said â€Å"I think, therefore I am† to prove the indubitable truth of self-existence. He suggested that every time when we doubt that â€Å"I† exist or not, we can absolute certain that â€Å"I† am existing by this act. Then he said that the evil genius could not deceive us â€Å"I exist† because before the evil genius’s deception, â€Å"I† must exist first, then I can be deceived in some way by the evil genius. So â€Å"I exist† is indubitable truth. Similarly, to say â€Å"I think because I exist† is true, The first criterion is I ust exist first. Therefore, I can think about my existence. So â€Å"I think† must base on â€Å"I exist†. In contrast, if â€Å"I exist† is based on â€Å"I think†, this is impossible that â€Å"I think† appear before â€Å"I exist†. How can my mind and thinking exist dependently? Although some scientists may argue that brain wave w hat we call ghosts can exist after life, they may be the other forms of human thought â€Å"I think† appearing without â€Å"I exist†. However, who have seen ghost in this world? At least until today no one can prove ghosts exist in this world. So â€Å"I think† is not the cause that I can exist. However, â€Å"I exist† is the cause of I can think. To conclude, â€Å"I think† cannot exist without â€Å"I exist†. It should be â€Å"I exist† first then â€Å"I think† â€Å"I exist†. As the following diagram shows: If it is â€Å"I exist because I think†, it would be missing I exist in the first place, as below diagram shows: Nothing can exist before itself, so before I think, I must exist. In other word, â€Å"I exist† does not dependent on â€Å"I think†, but â€Å"I think† do dependent on â€Å"I exist†. Therefore, â€Å"I think because I exist† is true.

Functions of Secondary Market

Functions of Secondary Market: The secondary market provides an organized place and the mechanism for trading in securities. They also ensure that the deals struck in the stock are fair and within the framework of law. The efficient functioning of the stock exchange creates a conductive climate for an active and growing primary market for new issues. An active and healthy secondary market in existing securities leads to better psychology of expectations; considerable broadening of investment enquiries renders the task of raising resources by entrepreneurs easier.Good performance and outlook for equities in the stock exchanges imparts buoyancy to the new issue market. The good stock exchange facilities the following important activities in the economy of a country: i. Favorable climate for growth of primary market ii. Widening of investment opportunities for the investor iii. Improving availability of resources for the business enterprises iv. Buoyancy in new issues v. Increasing conf idence among the players of the market Important functions 1.Provide a continuous market: It is the important objective of the secondary market to ensure stability in price as the trading activity progresses. The stock market achieves this aim by providing a continuous market infrastructure to the investor, thereby ensuring liquidity in the market. Some important characteristics of a continuous market are: i. Frequency of trades; ii. Small spread between bid and ask prices; iii. Immediate execution of order; iv. Change in price being minimum as the transaction takes place; The enefits of continuous market are that it creates marketable liquid investments and facilitates collateral lending. 2. Frequency of sales: A market will be liquid only when a buyer/ seller can find seller/buyer. If there are no buyers/sellers for some securities or there is long wait before a buyer/ seller can find counterparty, such market are called illiquid markets. The primary criterion for a good market is whether investors can sell their portfolio holding quickly with minimal price fluctuation at the time of sale.Liquidity occupies a central place in evaluating the efficiency of exchange. The market should have three important dimensions of liquidity. They are: i. Depth ii. Breadth iii. Resilience Depth refers to the situation wherein buy and sell orders are available at the quoted price for the desired quantity. If it is not available, then the market is termed as shallow market. The number of the transaction or the number of orders determines the breadth of the market. Otherwise the market is known as thin.The response to orders to changes in price reflects the resilience of the market. 3. Empirical measurement of liquidity: Empirically, liquidity is measured by the number of days a company’s share is traded, out of the number of days in the year, when the market is open. The number of days particular share is being traded reflects the liquidity of the market. If it is trad ed actively 50%of the days when the market is open, then it is termed as liquid. The variation in price of the share from one trading day to another also determines the liquidity of the share.If the difference between the lowest asked(or offered) price and highest bid-price is wide, the market is said to lack depth and considered shallow. Actually bid- asked spread is an inverse measure of liquidity. ‘ Tick’ as the minimum difference in rates between two orders on the same side i. e. , buy or sell entered on the system for a scrip. Trading in scrips listed on BSE is done with the size of 5 paise, it is 1 paise, in case of mutual funds and others to encourage orders at finer rates and improve liquidity.In United states, variation of one –eighth point in the price from the immediate trade is considered liquid. In our country, the minimum tick start from 0. 25. 4. Fair price determination: The prices in the stock market are determined by the interplay of the forces of supply and demand. When the prices are going up, it is termed as bull phase and when the prices are going down, it is termed as bear phase. As seen earlier active, bidding and two-way auction trading takes place in the stock exchange. The result is as near a market for free trading and free competition, as can be found anywhere.The bargains that are struck are at the fairest price, determined by the basic laws of supply and demand. At time large scale speculator activities raise the price of the share. But such activities are ephemeral in nature. There is no fundamental relationship between book value, par value and market value of share, because the share price may experience a boom if there is large scale investment from an individual or mutual fund company and also during such period too much money chases a few shares.The performance of the stock exchange is also subject to speculation, which at times, drives up the prices above the investment worth and at others, below it. Un der the normal circumstances, one would leave the situation to the forces of the market- what the buyers and sellers willing to bid and to offer. But in India, conscious policy is adopted to make shares attractive to the foreign institutional investors who evaluates our market, in relation to the other emerging markets. The stabilization of the stock market prices around a reasonable level would be desirable. . Aid to Financing Activities: Listed company finds it helpful to sell further issues of their shares in the primary market based on the good performance of their earlier ones. An active market and the good market price’s for the company’s shares makes the task of raising funds through further issues easier. This facilitates the company to command good price for the subsequent primary issue in the market. Rights themselves have an immediate and a wide market in the stock exchanges, provided the price including the premium reflects a fair price.Thus the stock excha nges enable a company to market further issues successfully by creating a continuous market for the rights. 6. Other allied functions: * The market prices established in the stock exchange trading are useful for tax purpose. * The stipulation on disclosure and transparency ensures that the investors have access to information on the listed companies, particularly with regards to their financial condition. * It serves to protect the investor’s interest by eliminating the dishonest and irregular practices rampant in the brokerage trade. To ensure a measure of safety and fair dealing to protect investors interest. * To provide the instant valuation of securities caused by changes in the internal environment. * To induce companies to improve performance since the market price at the stock exchanges reflects the performance and this market price is readily available to investors. * Secondary marketing is vital to an efficient and modern capital market. * In the secondary market, s ecurities are sold by and transferred from one investor or speculator to another. * Risk management